Apostrophes [ ’ ] are small above-line punctuation marks that serve more than one function in our text:
- They stand in for missing letters in contractions (e.g. do not → don’t).
- They show possession: that something belongs to someone (e.g. Sara’s bag, meaning the bag of Sara)
The Apostrophe in Use
- Don’t worry. We’ll be there by six. (contractions – don’t, we’ll)
- We’re not lost. We just don’t know exactly where we are. (contractions – we’re, don’t)
- “There’s no place like home.” — Dorothy [The Wizard of Oz, 1939] (contraction – there’s)
- Sarah’s birthday party is on Saturday. (possessive construction – singular possessor)
- The members’ lounge is upstairs. (possessive construction – plural possessor ending in -s)
- The men’s department is on the second floor. (possessive construction – irregular plural)
- Mark and Sophie’s flat is on the top floor. (possessive construction – joint possession)
- Mark’s and Sophie’s flats are on the top floor. (possessive construction – separate possession)
- All I need now is a good night’s sleep. (possessive construction – time possession)
- Don’t worry. We’ll be there by six. (contractions – don’t, we’ll)
Apostrophes in Contractions
A contraction is a shortened form of one or two words. When we use a contraction, the apostrophe takes the place of the letter or letters that are left out of the full form.
Example:
- We’re saving up for a trip to Portugal next year.
Here, we and are join to form we’re. The a in the word are is dropped, and the apostrophe marks exactly where it used to sit.
Contractions come naturally in speech. By joining words together, we make our speech flow more smoothly. In formal contexts, though, the full forms are often preferred.
Positive Contractions
Positive contractions attach a verb to its subject.
Here’s what that merge looks like:
This is the pattern behind every positive contraction.
English forms positive contractions with four verb groups: to be, to have, will, and would/had.
— To Be
To be gives us some of the most familiar contractions in English, such as I’m (I + am), you’re (you + are), and she’s (she + is).
Let’s take a look at I’m in a sentence:
- I’m meeting a friend for lunch later.
Here, I is the subject and am is the verb. To form the contraction, we simply join them together. The a in am is dropped, and the apostrophe marks the gap.
More examples:
- “It’s moo.” — Joey Tribbiani [Friends, 1994]
- I’m sure we’ve met before.
- You’re welcome to stay for dinner.
- He’s happy to help if you ask him.
- “So you’re telling me there’s a chance.” — Lloyd Christmas [Dumb and Dumber, 1994]
Quick Reference: To Be Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contraction Forms |
|---|---|---|
| I | I am | I’m |
| you | you are | you’re |
| he / she / it | he is / she is / it is | he’s / she’s / it’s |
| we | we are | we’re |
| they | they are | they’re |
— To Have
When we contract to have:
- have becomes ’ve
- has becomes ’s
Both verb forms lose the same two letters – ha, as in I’ve (I + have) and he’s (he + has).
Examples:
- She’s finally passed her test.
- We’ve been queuing for two hours.
- I’ve never seen so much rain in one week.
Quick Reference: To Have Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contraction Forms |
|---|---|---|
| I | I have | I’ve |
| you | you have | you’ve |
| he / she / it | he has / she has / it has | he’s / she’s / it’s |
| we | we have | we’ve |
| they | they have | they’ve |
— Will
Will is a helper verb we add to another verb to point to the future. When we contract it, an apostrophe replaces wi to leave ’ll: we’ll.
Examples:
- I’ll call you back in five minutes.
- We’ll miss the train if we don’t leave now.
- He’ll email the invoice over this afternoon.
Quick Reference: Will Contractions
| Pronouns | Contraction Forms | Contraction Forms |
|---|---|---|
| I | I will | I’ll |
| you | you will | you’ll |
| he / she / it | he will / she will / it will | he’ll / she’ll / it’ll |
| we | we will | we’ll |
| they | they will | they’ll |
— Would and Had
Would and had both contract to the exact same short form: ’d.
That means I’d could mean I would, or it could mean I had. The word alone doesn’t tell you which. This is where context comes into play.
Let’s take this example:
- I’d love a coffee.
❌ – I had love a coffee.
✅ – I would love a coffee.
Only would fits here, so I’d has to mean I would.
Now compare:
- I’d already left by then.
❌ – I would already left by then.
✅ – I had already left by then.
Only had fits here, so I’d has to mean I had.
More examples of would and had contractions:
- We’d agreed on the plan weeks in advance. (we had → we’d)
- I’d rather walk than wait for the next bus. (I would → I’d)
- We’d barely got going on the hike when Leah twisted her ankle. (we had → we’d)
- If I had to choose, I’d pick a city break over a beach holiday every time. (I would → I’d)
Quick Reference: Would and Had Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contraction Forms |
|---|---|---|
| I | I would / I had | I’d |
| you | you would / you had | you’d |
| he / she / it | he would / he had | he’d / she’d / it’d |
| we | we would / we had | we’d |
| they | they would / they had | they’d |
Remember: Since ’s can mean is or has, and ’d can mean would or had, context does the deciding. He’s late means he is late, while he’s already left means he has already left.
Negative Contractions
Negative contractions generally attach not to the verb itself.
We form negative contractions with four main verb groups: to be, to have, to do, and the modals.
Two of these, to be and to have, offer two valid ways to form the negative, not just one. We’ll cover each in turn below.
— Negative To Be
To be forms its negative two ways.
- it contracts not directly onto the verb: isn’t, aren’t, wasn’t, weren’t
- it contracts the subject and verb first, then adds not separately: I’m not, you’re not, he’s not
For example:
- He is not coming to work today.
There are two ways to contract this:
✅ – He isn’t coming to work today.
✅ – He’s not coming to work today.
Here, both sentences are correct. Both forms of contraction work to produce the same meaning.
More examples:
- We aren’t open on Mondays.
- That wasn’t part of the plan.
- You’re not allowed in without a ticket.
Quick Reference: Negative To Be Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contracts Not | Contracts Subject + Verb |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | I am not | I aren’t (informal) | I’m not |
| you | you are not | you aren’t | you’re not |
| he / she / it | he is not / she is not / it is not | he / she / it isn’t | he’s not / she’s not / it’s not |
| we | we are not | we aren’t | we’re not |
| they | they are not | they aren’t | they’re not |
Note: The contraction aren’t is used informally for I am not (e.g. I aren’t sure). It also shows up in question tags, such as “I’m right, aren’t I?”
— Negative To Have
To have also forms its negative two ways.
- it contracts not straight onto the verb: haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t
- it contracts the subject and verb first, and not follows on its own: I’ve not, she’s not, we’ve not
For example:
- I have not been there before.
There are two ways to contract this:
✅ – I haven’t been there before.
✅ – I’ve not been there before.
Both sentences are correct here, and either form works to convey the same meaning.
More examples:
- I haven’t heard back from them yet.
- The council hasn’t responded to the petition.
- We’ve not decided on a venue for the wedding yet.
Quick Reference: Negative To Have Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contracts Not | Contracts Subject + Verb |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | I have not | I haven’t | I’ve not |
| you | you have not | you haven’t | you’ve not |
| he / she / it | he / she / it has not | he / she / it hasn’t | he’s / she’s / it’s not |
| we | we have not | we haven’t | we’ve not |
| they | they have not | they haven’t | they’ve not |
— Negative To Do
To do forms its negative by attaching not to the verb itself.
Examples:
- I don’t eat meat.
- She doesn’t mince her words.
- It didn’t go quite as planned.
Quick Reference: Negative To Do Contractions
| Pronouns | Full Forms | Contracts Subject + Verb |
|---|---|---|
| I | I do not | I don’t |
| you | you do not | you don’t |
| he / she / it | he / she / it does not | he / she/ it doesn’t |
| we | we do not | we don’t |
| they | they do not | they don’t |
— Negative Modal Contractions
Modal verbs (e.g. should, must, will, and would) express a range of things, including obligation, necessity, intention, and hypothetical situations.
To contract modals in the negative, we generally attach not to the end of them: shouldn’t, mustn’t, won’t, wouldn’t.
For example:
- I wouldn’t do that if I were you.
- We won’t know the results until Friday.
- You shouldn’t judge a book by its cover, as the saying goes.
Quick Reference: Negative Modals Contractions
| Full Forms | Contraction Forms |
|---|---|
| can not / cannot | can’t |
| could not | couldn’t |
| must not | mustn’t |
| should not | shouldn’t |
| will not | won’t |
| would not | wouldn’t |
| shall not | shan’t (rare in modern use) |
| might not | mightn’t (rare in modern use) |
| may not | (no contraction) |
Note: will not is an exception to the usual pattern. It contracts to won’t (not willn’t, as one might logically assume). This irregular form traces back to Early Modern English and has stayed in use for centuries.
Contractions at the End of a Sentence
Contractions come with a quirk worth pointing out, one that even sometimes surprises native speakers. It relates to placement in a sentence.
At the very end of a sentence or clause, positive contractions can’t sit alone.
For example:
❌ – Are you tired? Yes, I’m.
Here, I’m is the light, unstressed form of I am. English needs a word that can carry vocal stress at the very end of a sentence, and contractions like I’m don’t have the oomph to close a sentence off.
In such cases, we use the full form, since it can carry the vocal stress the sentence needs to end on:
✅ – Are you tired? Yes, I am.
However, this quirk doesn’t extend to negative contractions. Not is either fused into the verb (e.g. isn’t, can’t) or sitting right beside it (e.g. I’m not). This means that there’s always a word to carry the vocal stress at the end with negative contractions.
For example:
✅ – Are you tired? No, I’m not.
✅ – Is he tired? No, he isn’t.
Contractions and Emphasis
Sometimes, we deliberately avoid contractions when a word needs more weight or emphasis.
Take this example:
- I’ll be there.
In this sentence, the contraction I’ll has a softening effect. It comes off as more of a casual commitment.
Now, without the contraction:
- I will be there.
Here, we have the same sentence in meaning, but the full form of the contraction I’ll is used. The word will carries a vocal stress the contraction can’t, and that stress is what gives the sentence its added weight.
More examples:
- I will not comply.
- I did not eat the last cupcake.
- We are proud of you, and we do not say that lightly.
Contractions with Non-Pronoun Subjects
The subject of a contraction doesn’t have to be a pronoun. Any noun, or noun phrase, can take one too.
For example:
- Lucy’s just texted. She’s running late.
Here, Lucy is a noun functioning as the subject of the sentence. It contracts with has exactly the way the stand-in pronoun she would (e.g. She’s just texted).
This contraction pattern works with all sorts of subjects, not just names:
- The kettle’s boiled. (the kettle + is / has)
- There’s a storm brewing. (there + is)
- “The name’s Bond. James Bond.” (the name + is)
- The woman next door’s just moved out. (the woman next door + has)
Apostrophes for Possession
The apostrophe’s second major function is to signify possession, specifically between two nouns. In grammar, this construction is what we call possessive nouns.
When something is owned or associated with something else, we use possessive nouns.
Take this example: the passenger’s luggage.
| Noun 1 (Possessor Noun) | Noun 2 (Possessed Noun) | |
|---|---|---|
| The | the passenger’s | luggage |
The possessed noun, luggage, belongs to the possessor, the passenger. Notice where the apostrophe sits. It attaches directly to passenger, along with the letter -s, and shows that they are the one who possesses the luggage.
Every possessive noun construction is a shortened version of what we can call an of construction. The passenger’s luggage is short for the luggage of the passenger.
Types of Possessive Nouns
Our example above, (the passenger’s luggage), is telling us about the luggage of one person, one possessor.
Let’s look at it in a full sentence:
- The passenger’s luggage went missing on the connecting flight.
But what if we wanted to talk about the luggage of multiple passengers instead?
This is where the apostrophe, small as it is, does real work. Its placement isn’t decorative. It can change meaning altogether.
For example:
- The passengers’ luggage went missing on the connecting flight.
With most singular possessors, the apostrophe comes before the -s (passenger’s – one passenger). In contrast, with most plural possessors, it comes after (passengers’ – more than one passenger).
It’s worth bearing in mind, though, that not every plural possessor ends in -s. Irregular nouns such as children, women, and people don’t end in -s at all. In such cases, we place the apostrophe before the -s, the same as a single possessor: the children’s toys, not childrens’.
There are a few more major apostrophe-based rules to be aware of when it comes to possessive nouns. The table below summarises these:
Possessive Apostrophe Rules at a Glance
| Type | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Singular [ ’s ] | the passenger’s luggage | belonging to one passenger |
| Regular Plural [ s’ ] | the passengers’ luggage | belonging to more than one passenger |
| Irregular Plural [ ’s ] | the men’s changing room | belonging to more than one man (though the word itself doesn’t end in -s) |
| Joint [ ’s ] (last name only) | Freya and Finn’s flat | one thing, shared |
| Separate [ ’s ] (each name) | Freya’s and Finn’s flats | one thing each |
| Compound [ ’s ] (last word) | my brother-in-law’s car | one possessor made of several words |
Note: When forming a possessive construction, apostrophe placement comes down to two steps:
- First, we pin down the possessor: is there one, or more than one, do they share the thing or hold it separately, and is the possessor one word or several.
- Second, we check how the possessor is spelt. If it already ends in -s, we add only an apostrophe. If it doesn’t, we add an apostrophe and an -s.
When a Missing Apostrophe Became a Court Case
Apostrophe placement, as we’ve seen, is important. A point out of place, and the whole meaning of a sentence can change. Sometimes, that change carries real consequences, as exemplified by the civil law case of Gan v Zadravic [2021] NSWDC 533 in New South Wales, Australia. This was a defamation case that arose because of a missing apostrophe in a Facebook rant about a former boss.
Here’s what happened:
In 2020, a former real estate agent took to Facebook to accuse his ex-boss of failing to pay staff their superannuation (Australia’s term for a workplace pension) for what he claimed was two years (Albeck-Ripka, 2021; Business Insider, 2021; Coutts Lawyers & Conveyancers, 2023; News18, 2021). The post named the boss directly, and was taken down less than twelve hours later, by which point his ex-boss had already seen it (Ibid.). Subsequently, the former boss decided to take legal action (Ibid.).
The main driver behind the defamation case was an alleged grammatical mistake. In the post referring to his old boss, the poster wrote: ‘Selling multi million $ homes in Pearl Beach but can’t pay his employees superannuation’ (Albeck-Ripka, 2021). The case centred on one word: employees (plain plural). As written, it accuses the boss of shortchanging his entire staff, not just one person.
Compare this with the possessive form:
…can’t pay his employee’s superannuation.
Here, employee’s is a singular possessive, the same construction as the passenger’s luggage earlier on this page. With the singular possessor, the accusation narrows to just one person’s unpaid superannuation.
The poster later claimed the missing apostrophe was simply a mistake and insisted that he meant the singular possessive form. The judge refused to drop the case. She ruled the missing apostrophe could suggest a ‘systematic pattern of conduct’ by the agency, rather than an accusation involving just one employee (Ibid.).
Few apostrophe slips carry stakes quite this high, but the case proves the point all the same: apostrophe placement matters.
Sources
Albeck-Ripka, L. (2021) Missing Apostrophe in Facebook Post Lands a Man in Defamation Court [Online]. The New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/11/world/australia/facebook-post-missing-apostrophe-defamation.html (Accessed: 7 August 2026).
Business Insider (2021) Australian Real Estate Agent May Pay $180k Over Missed Apostrophe [Online]. Business Insider. Available from: https://www.businessinsider.com/australian-real-estate-agent-may-pay-180k-over-missed-apostrophe-2021-10 (Accessed: 7 August 2026).
Coutts Lawyers & Conveyancers (2023) Gan v Zadravic [2021] NSWDC 533: Missing Apostrophe in Facebook Post Leads to Court Case [Online]. Coutts Lawyers & Conveyancers. Available from: https://couttslegal.com.au/blog/gan-v-zadravic-2021-nswdc-533-missing-apostrophe-in-facebook-post-leads-to-court-case/ (Accessed: 7 August 2026).
News18 (2021) A Missing Apostrophe in Facebook Post May Cost This Man Thousands of Dollars [Online]. News18. Available from: https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/a-missing-apostrophe-in-facebook-post-may-cost-this-man-thousands-of-dollars-4313342.html (Accessed: 7 August 2026).